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Today in Catholic History – The Baptism of Poland

April 14, 2010 – 9:04 am

On 14 April 966, Mieszko I – the first historical ruler of Poland, was baptized. This was followed by the baptism of the Polish people and the Christianization of that land. Where this baptism took place is a matter of historical debate, with Gniezno, Poznań, Ostrów Lednicki, Cologne, Regensburg and Rome being suggested.

Mieszko saw in Catholicism a way of uniting the Polish people in a common faith and of supporting his authority over Poland. Moreover, adopting Christianity gave it some protection against the strong German Holy Roman Empire on its borders which could have used Christianization as a motivation for attacking the Poles and putting them under its control. Other motivations suggested for the decision to be baptized are a desire to improve relations with the Czech kingdom of Bohemia to which his wife Dobrova belonged or a desire to weaken the powerful pagan priests.

Of course, since Poland chose to adopt Catholicism as a result of Czech missionaries from the West as opposed to its neighbor Russia which took the faith from the East, this will have profound effects on the future relations between these two peoples and the understanding of Slavic nationalism – these Czech missionaries had accompanied Dobrava when she married Mieszko in 965. Thus, Poland will adopt Latin liturgical traditions and the Latin alphabet whereas Russia will adopt the Slavonic alphabet and the liturgical traditions of Constantinople.

The baptism of Mieszko also may have had an influence on the Polish celebration of Dyngus Day. By tradition Mieszko was baptized on Easter Monday and the dousing of young women with water on Dyngus Day, celebrated on Easter Monday, may be related to this event.

For more on Mieszko and his baptism.

By sbeshonertor | Also posted in Polish History | Comments (0)

Today in Catholic History – Edict of Nantes

April 13, 2010 – 8:31 am

On 13 April 1598, Henry IV of France issued the Edict of Nantes which granted the Huguenots [French Calvinists] the right to public worship in certain French cities and ended the French Wars of Religion [1562-1598]. It was one one of the earliest decrees instituting religious toleration in Modern Europe.

Henry IV himself had been a Huguenot before becoming king and had converted to Catholicism because it had been required for him to take the French throne – supposedly saying “Paris is worth a Mass”.

Because Henry IV’s ability to protect Protestants against Catholics, who continued to desire religious uniformity in France, was limited the right to public worship granted by the Edict was restricted to specific “places of safety”. In addition to granting right to worship and full civil rights, the Edict also protected French Protestants from the Inquisition. Catholicism was retained as the established religion of France and Protestants still had to pay the Church tithe and respect Catholic holidays.

After the death of Henry IV, the tolerance offered to the Protestants in France would diminish until in October 1685, when Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes and declared Protestantism illegal with the Edict of Fontainebleau. As a result as many as 400,000 Protestants left France. Since these were from France’s merchant class, this would have a devastating effect on the French economy.

For more on the Edict of Nantes

By sbeshonertor | Also posted in French History | Comments (1)

Today in Catholic History – The Fourth Crusade Captures Constantinople

April 12, 2010 – 8:54 am

On 12 April 1204, the Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade captured Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire and would establish the short lived Latin Empire which lasted until 1261.

The crusaders had sailed from Venice on 24 June 1202 with the intent to attack Cairo. They had been explicitly banned by Pope Innocent III from attacking any Christian states. However, when the crusaders began assembling, they had requested from Venice far more ships to be constructed than they would eventually need. Venice built ships for 33,500 crusaders but when the crusade set sail there were only 12,000 soldiers. Despite not needing the additional boats, Venice required that the crusaders pay for all ships constructed. This reduced many of the crusaders to poverty and placed a severe economic strain on the Venetians. When Byzantine prince Alexius Angelus approached the Crusaders with an offer to provide them with money, men and ships in exchange for helping him to overthrow Emperor Alexius III and restore Isaac II, the father of Prince Alexis, to the throne – the Crusaders saw an opportunity to recoup their losses.

While the initial motive of the crusader attack on Constantinople was to restore Isaac II to the throne, after the Crusaders overthrew Alexius III, prince Alexius – now Alexius IV, was unable to deliver the promised wealth to the Crusaders. Moreover, Alexius IV became extremely unpopular in Constantinople and was eventually strangled to death and replaced by one of his courtiers who would become Alexius V. The Crusaders then demanded that Alexius V honor Alexius IV’s agreement, but Alexius V refused. Therefore, the Crusaders continued their attack on Constantinople to get they money they believed they were owed.

It should be noted that Pope Innocent III had sent explicit letters forbidding an attack on Constantinople but these letters were kept hidden by the clergy participating in the siege of Constantinople.

When the Crusaders finally took Constantinople, the destruction was enormous. Fires in the city would leave 15,000 homeless. The sack of the city lasted three days, during which the Crusaders violated churches and destroyed the Library of Constantinople. One account writes:

the French and others destroyed indiscriminately, halting to refresh themselves with wine, violation of nuns, and murder of Orthodox clerics. The Crusaders vented their hatred for the Greeks most spectacularly in the desecration of the greatest Church in Christendom. They smashed the silver iconostasis, the icons and the holy books of Hagia Sophia, and seated upon the patriarchal throne a whore who sang coarse songs as they drank wine from the Church’s holy vessels… The Greeks were convinced that even the Turks, had they taken the city, would not have been as cruel as the Latin Christians.

When Pope Innocent III heard about what the Crusaders had done, he was furious and asked:

How, indeed, will the church of the Greeks, no matter how severely she is beset with afflictions and persecutions, return into ecclesiastical union and to a devotion for the Apostolic See, when she has seen in the Latins only an example of perdition and the works of darkness, so that she now, and with reason, detests the Latins more than dogs? As for those who were supposed to be seeking the ends of Jesus Christ, not their own ends, who made their swords, which they were supposed to use against the pagans, drip with Christian blood, they have spared neither religion, nor age, nor sex. They have committed incest, adultery, and fornication before the eyes of men. They have exposed both matrons and virgins, even those dedicated to God, to the sordid lusts of boys.

Although the Byzantines would eventually recover Constantinople, the Empire was permanently weakened and the destruction of the Fourth Crusade would contribute to the eventual fall of the Empire in 1453. Furthermore, while the schism between East and West could be said to have begun in 1054, it was the sack of Constantinople that made that rupture permanent.

The memory of the sack of Constantinople is still strong among the Orthodox. Twice, Pope John Paul II issued an apology for what the Catholic West had done. In April 2004, Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I formally accepted Pope John Paul II’s apology.

For more on the Fourth Crusade

Today in Catholic History – Pope Paul VI establishes the International Theological Commission

April 11, 2010 – 9:31 am

On 11 April 1969, Pope Paul VI established the International Theological Commission [ITC]. The Commission is a dicastery/department of the Roman Curia, It consists of thirty Catholic scholars chosen from a wide variety of national backgrounds and theological specializations. Members are chosen by the Pope in consultation with the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith [CDF] and episcopal conferences. Each member serves a five year term, but can be reappointed. Generally, the ITC meets once a year for a week, usually in the Fall, to discuss a topic suggested by the Holy Father or one of their own choosing. The ex officio president of the ITC is the Prefect of the CDF. Pope John Paul II established the definitive statues for the ITC in the moto proprio Tredecim Anni on 6 August 1982.

The purpose of the ITC is to advise the CDF on issues of dogmatic importance and to bring together scholarly and pastoral opinion. The ITC has issued documents related to liberation theology, the relationship of Catholicism to other religions, Limbo, and evolution. It should be noted that the ITC is an advisory commission and its documents are not considered official or authoritative expressions of Catholic teaching.

Some of the members of the ITC have been Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, Cardinal William Levada, and Cardinal Avery Dulles. In 2004, Pope John Paul II appointed the first two women to the ITC – Sara Butler, M.S.B.T. and Barbara Hallensleben.

Website of the ITC

By sbeshonertor | Also posted in Papal History | Comments (0)

Today in Catholic History – The Catholic University of America is Established

April 10, 2010 – 1:34 pm

On Easter Sunday, 10 April 1887, Pope Leo XIII gave permission to James Cardinal Gibbons, the Archbishop of Baltimore, for the establishment of the Catholic University of America in the letter Quod in novissimo conventu.

Pope Leo was strongly supportive of the university, writing, “Go on therefore, Beloved Son, together with all Our other Venerable Brethren the Bishops of the United States, to carry to perfection with one mind what you have begun; and let not any one of you be deterred by any difficulty or labor, but let all take courage from the assured hope that they will receive an abundant return for their cares and solicitudes.” He wanted the university to provide the Church with “worthy ministers” for evangelization and the saving of souls and to provide the United States with “her best citizens”.

Ever since October 1866, at the Second Plenary Council of Baltimore, the US bishops had expressed to the Vatican their desire to establish a university. At the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore in 1884, Washington DC was selected as the site. On 7 March 1889, Pope Leo XIII issued the Apostolic Letter Magni nobis gaudii which approved the constitution and statutes, and granted the university the power to offer degrees. Classes officially began on 13 November 1889.

More on the history of the Catholic University of America
Quod in novissimo conventu in Latin can be found here
Magni nobis gaudi

By sbeshonertor | Also posted in US History | Comments (0)

Today in Catholic History – Emperor Basiliscus issues the Enkyklikon

April 9, 2010 – 8:56 am

One of the major theological disputes over the nature of Jesus Christ in the early years of the Byzantine Empire was the Monophysite controversy. The position expressed at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 was that Jesus Christ fully possessed two natures, divinity and humanity. However, those who will come to be called Monophysites by the supporters of Chalcedon believed that Jesus Christ possessed only one nature, divinity. It should be noted that those who believed that Jesus Christ possessed only one nature will not, however, call themselves Monophysites. They are known as the Coptic Orthodox Church today.

The supporters of the monophysite position were extremely numerous especially throughout the region of northern Africa and would establish their own ecclesiastical hierarchy as a rival to that of the Chalcedonians. So what began as a theological dispute would quickly have political repercussions as large sections of the Byzantine Empire placed themselves in opposition to imperial authority as long as the Emperor supported the theology of Chalcedon.

On 9 April 476, Emperor Basiliscus attempted to pacify the supporters of the Monophysite position by issuing his Enkyklikon, or encyclical letter, ordering that the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon and its supporting Letter of Pope Leo were to be rejected. All the bishops of the Empire were to sign this letter attesting their agreement to its decisions and Evagrius Scholasticus states that 500 bishops signed their names. However, Patriarch Acacius of Constantinople and most of the Constantinople opposed the Enkyklikon. They showed their hostility by covering the icons in the Basilica of Hagia Sophia in black cloth.

In the West, Pope Simplicius asserted that it was he as successor of Peter and not the Emperor who possessed the authority of expounding the faith. He too rejected the Enkyklikon.

In 477, Zeno expelled Basiliscus, rescinded the Enkiklikon and pronounced his support of Chalcedon. However, in 482 he will try his own hand at making peace among the different sides of this argument over the nature of Christ with the issuance of his Henotikon. This will result in the Acacian schism between the Eastern and Western Church.

For more on Basiliscus and Simplicius

By sbeshonertor | Also posted in Byzantine History | Comments (0)

Today in Catholic History – The Bible Canon and the Council of Trent

April 8, 2010 – 8:43 am

In its fourth session, on 8 April 1546, the Council of Trent by a vote of 24 for versus 15 against with 16 abstentions approved the Canon or list of books presently contained within the Roman Catholic Bible. These books included what are commonly called the 12 Deuterocanonical books. The Deuterocanonical books were not added to the Bible, rather the Council of Trent reaffirmed earlier lists of authoritative scriptures in 382, 393, and 397 which contained the Deuterocanonical books. Martin Luther had placed these books into a separate section of his Bible called the Apocrypha and gave them a lesser status to the other Old Testament texts, in part because the Deuterocanonical texts could be used to support Catholic teaching which Luther opposed such as the doctrine of Purgatory.

The Books of the Bible were:

Of the Old Testament: the five books of Moses, to wit, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy; Josue, Judges, Ruth, four books of Kings, two of Paralipomenon, the first book of Esdras, and the second which is entitled Nehemias; Tobias, Judith, Esther, Job, the Davidical Psalter, consisting of a hundred and fifty psalms; the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, the Canticle of Canticles, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Isaias, Jeremias, with Baruch; Ezechiel, Daniel; the twelve minor prophets, to wit, Osee, Joel, Amos, Abdias, Jonas, Micheas, Nahum, Habacuc, Sophonias, Aggaeus, Zacharias, Malachias; two books of the Machabees, the first and the second.

Of the New Testament: the four Gospels, according to Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John; the Acts of the Apostles written by Luke the Evangelist; fourteen epistles of Paul the apostle, (one) to the Romans, two to the Corinthians, (one) to the Galatians, to the Ephesians, to the Philippians, to the Colossians, two to the Thessalonians, two to Timothy, (one) to Titus, to Philemon, to the Hebrews; two of Peter the apostle, three of John the apostle, one of the apostle James, one of Jude the apostle, and the Apocalypse of John the apostle.

The Council of Trent also placed an anathema on any who did not accept as valid the scriptures contained in the Latin Vulgate Bible – made the authoritative version of the Bible; prohibited interpretation of the Scriptures contrary to that of the Catholic Church; and prohibited printing of Bibles or commentaries on the Scripture without permission of local Ordinaries.

The Decrees of Trent on the Sacred Scriptures

By sbeshonertor | Also posted in Papal History | Comments (0)

Today in Catholic History – The Conclave of 1378

April 7, 2010 – 8:23 am

After the death of Pope Gregory XI, a conclave assembled on 7 April 1378 to choose a new pope. This conclave was the first since the transfer of the papal see from Avignon to Rome after the end of what was known as the Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy. It was also one of the shortest in the history of the Catholic Church – lasting only until the 9th of April and the first to be held in the old basilica of Saint Peter.

The conclave would meet under pressure and violence from Roman citizenry who demanded an Italian pope after the decades of French dominance during the Avignon Papacy. Eventually Bartolommeo Prignano, the Archbishop of Bari, would be elected as pope, taking the name of Urban VI.

However by September, frustration over the leadership of Pope Urban would lead thirteen cardinals to claim that their votes for Urban had been coerced by the threats of the Roman mob and were, therefore invalid. Thus they held a new conclave in Fondi and elected Robert of Geneva, the anti-pope Clement VII as a rival pope. This marked the beginning of the Western Schism – a period of multiple claimants to the papacy that would last until 1417 and the election of Pope Martin V.

For more on the Western Schism
Also listen to episode #155 of Catholic:Under The Hood

By sbeshonertor | Also posted in Papal History | Comments (0)

Today in Catholic History – The founding of La Civiltà Cattolica

April 6, 2010 – 9:37 am

On 6 April 1850, the Society of Jesus began to publish its very influential journal La Civiltà Cattolica or The Catholic Civilization in Naples, Italy but would later move to Rome.

Founded by Fr. Carlo Maria Curci, SJ. at the request of Pope Pius IX and with the purpose of defending Catholicism in modern society, the journal was initially directed against the attacks of liberalism and freemasonry.

In the second half of the 19th century, the journal will defend papal documents such as the Syllabus of Errors and the teachings of the First Vatican Council. It will also encourage the teaching of the philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas.

In the early to mid 20th century, La Civiltà Cattolica will focus on defending the Catholic Church against the threats of communism and support the growth of Catholic political parties in Italy. After Vatican II, the journal will move from a more confrontational attitude to one seeking more cooperation with contemporary society in line with the views of Pope John XXIII and the post-Vatican II papacy.

It continues to be seen as the unofficial voice of the Vatican as its articles are supposed to receive approval by the Vatican Secretary of State before publication.

For more on La Civiltà Cattolica.

By sbeshonertor | Also posted in Italian History | Comments (0)

Today in Catholic History – The Battle of the Ice

April 5, 2010 – 10:34 am

On 5 April 1242, the forces of the Republic of Novgorod led by St. Alexander Nevsky were victorious over the forces of the Teutonic Knights at Lake Peipus, also known as Lake Chud.

The Battle of the Ice took place on the frozen Lake Peipus and many of the Teutonic knights would perish as the ice collapsed under the weight of their horses and heavy armor. There is some discrepancy over the number of Teutonic knights that died at the battle. The older chronicles give a number around six hundred but modern historians think somewhere between twenty and thirty died.

Lack of historical sources contributes to the historical disagreement over the significance of the battle. Some western historians, such as John Fennell do not see the battle as particularly significant. However, for Russian Orthodox, this battle is seen as the victory of the forces of Orthodoxy over the forces of Catholicism. Indeed, one of the sources of Russian Orthodox animosity towards Roman Catholics is the belief that at this time when Orthodox struggled against the might of the Mongol invasion, the Catholic Teutonic knights tried to take advantage of their weakness.

The Battle of the Ice was dramatically presented in the famous 1938 film Alexander Nevsky by Sergei Eisenstein in which the struggle between Alexander Nevsky and the Teutonic Knights became representative of the struggle between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany.

For more information on the Battle of the Ice

By sbeshonertor | Also posted in Russian History | Comments (0)